Drum Rhythms and Golden Scriptures: Reasons for Mormon Conversion Within Haiti's Culture of Vodou

At first glance, it may be difficult to see a relationship between Haitian Vodou and Mormonism.1 How could Mormonism, which established upheld racist policies doctrines, associated with religion born out of Black power?2 Connections however, are worth investigating because thousands people living in Haiti have been converting Mormonism since the official opening an LDS mission 1983.3 This article shows that Haitians not attracted simply often means access social mobility but also tremendous paradoxical similarities exist two religions despite their differences.4In 2020, Church tallied 24,192 Latter-day Saints Haiti.5 Conversion among Haitians, only started 1980s, is relatively new Mormon history.6 Within months after foundation on April 6, 1830, gospel spread through missionary work within United States.7 Seven years later, June 1, 1837, prophet founder Church, Joseph Smith Jr., decided send missionaries overseas. He announced one his fervent followers, Heber C. Kimball, God told him, “Let my servant go England proclaim gospel.”8 One month Kimball left North America preach Preston, England.9 Kimball's efforts brought over thousand converts from British laboring classes fold. success fueled Smith's desire build international community.10However, took 143 for start preaching Haiti. The Church's race were main reason so long. Originally, did put racial restrictions priesthood ordination, individuals, such as Elijah Abel, “ordained during lifetime.”11 Unfortunately, death, successor, Brigham Young, imposed community. 1852 men African descent no longer receive priesthood. Young further restricted all members participating temple rituals. These decisions prevented going fundamental ritual sealing has purpose joining “a man woman children eternity,” creating “family relationships will endure death.”12 Hence, denied spiritual privileges Earth afterlife. From pulpit, recited rhetoric backing ban by claiming “the negro,” whom he called seed Canaan, “should serve” white population.13A culture grew stronger community next 126 years. In 1950s 1960s, University's vice president head Educational System, William E. Berrett, openly embraced Young's discriminatory policies. Berrett taught premortal life, punished those who sided Satan black body. argued “Men equal when entering this life” “We pre-earth life eternities.”14 According body was reminder one's transgression heaven before being born. Berrett's essays, “The Negroid People,” even published supplementary essay second edition Utah State University professor John Stewart's book titled Negro “to provide needed historical information many teachers educational system church.”15 Although they highly circulated System fed doctrinal racism.The exclusion lifted 1978 Spencer W. enchained racism into Mormonism. worthy male Saints, regardless race, again priesthood, enter temples perform sacred rituals.16 decision changed religious status throughout world finally enabled Haiti.Not would Blackness impacted membership until 1978, discrimination toward cultures flagrant publications. example comes 1991 magazine Ensign uses stereotypes terminology need overcome “voodoo” order “fully” convert article, described satanic focused “spirit possession, curses, blood sacrifice.”17 Why join requires abandonment former practices entrenched cultural identity, history, society?The wealth Jesus Christ visible its financial support programs humanitarian efforts, specifically impoverished countries leader Dallin H. Oaks claims average spends “$40 million welfare, other Church-sponsored projects” annually, without US government.18 When facing troubles, encouraged reach bishop.19 Managing director bishops’ storehouse (a commodity resource center food basic amenities) Steven Peterson explains idea caring need” scriptural mandate.”20 available nonmembers worldwide promote image institutional self-reliance.For coming closer contact American opportunities connected it. founded States headquartered state Utah. 2018, 77 percent General Authorities citizens. Since nationality diversity leaders grown, 16 outside 40 2018. Despite increase presence leadership most remain citizens.21 It is, therefore, common associate States.D. Michael Quinn's research corporate power hierarchy modeled business structure describes formal, stratified officers church-wide jurisdiction.”22 Because configuration, current referred “corporate Mormonism,” businesslike outward appearance missionaries, must dress according code.23 Their outfits look similar Hollywood professional. travel world, matter climate or customs country, dark-colored suits, button-down collared shirts, ties, shoes—a wardrobe matters.During high school France, friends I crossed paths missionaries. Knowing me church, ask about day. Some familiar ask: “Are your secret agents?” To them, looked like characters Barry Sonnenfeld's movie Men (1997) rather than volunteer preachers. Anthropologist Jennifer Huss Basquiat stumbled upon some while doing field She writes had face interesting prevailing held [including] Central Intelligence Agency, CIA, same.” mentions majority Haitians” she interviewed.24 examples illustrate States, leaders’ missionaries’ disconnected instead reflects professional stereotype.I opportunity discuss interview conducted Mathew Gérard, States. questioned him origin name, answered father picked “because loved things American.”25 asked if admiration Haitians. Gérard replied “most fascinated socioeconomic possibilities country can them.”26The data Migration Policy Institute (MPI) website illustrates Gérard's comment showing “United top global destination migrants.”27 immigrants reached 687,000, making them fourth-largest foreign-born group Caribbean” country.28 used French term “terre d'asile” (land refuge) describe what represents countless idealization illustrated MPI website's statistics find employment service, sales, office occupation, production, transportation earn minimum wage, 26 afford health insurance. Even though fall low-income category able money family transfer dollars reinforce concept land motivates more immigrate there.The mobility, especially architecture. explained well-regarded air radio, positive articles frequently local newspapers, well-received country. However, seems make noticeable luxurious meetinghouses Port-au-Prince Temple. Those spaces earthquake-resistant built expensive material, unlike buildings “not durable” do follow any building codes.29During Haiti's devastating earthquake January 2010, constructions suffered little damage. On 2013 visit Haiti, Utah-born Authority Neil L. Andersen became shelters lost homes earthquake. Petionville bishop, Harry Mardy, reported “600 people—some L’Église de Jésus-Christ des Derniers Jours (LDS Church), not—call meetinghouse grounds home.”30 expressed joy concerning help provided video clip posted Newsroom website. filmed spacious ceilings, freshly painted walls, microphone smart board addressing congregation.31 luxury, cleanliness, technology believe stand poorest Caribbean. temple's appearance, modern plumbing, electricity, internet access, conditioning, amenities generally wealthiest prosperous advertise lifestyle to. seen States.One scholars written together, Basquiat, noticed particularly drawn story relate mystical experiences personal background.32 interest differs non-Haitian conversion stories usually focus miraculous translation Book Mormon. full magic supernatural events. saw conversed Christ, attacked Satan, visions angels, given magical tools translate made gold.33 First Vision easily accepted truth visitations interactions divine population. makes note these paranormal events interviewing Elder Vigliotti, Vigliotti tells encounter interested surprised, nor strange. quotes several investigators “just last night.”34 Mystical part culture, fits right it.Basquiat another Alex Lamoricie, convert, connections Smith. Lamoricie struck humble background poor farmer. Countless struggles. Indeed, large percentage population lives poverty difficulties farming. 2012, “six lived below line less $2.41 per day, 2.5 fell extreme line.”35 economic trials.Lamoricie additionally “was intellect.”36 Like Smith, formal education trouble reading writing. reflected literacy rate where “un analphabétisme achevé handicape socialement environ 8,5 personnes sur 10” [illiteracy socially handicaps 8.5 individuals 10].37 calls shared phenomenon circumstances “embodied understanding” themselves Basquiat's limited extends Mormonism's collective history suffering, practice spirit emphasis ancestors apply Mormons upbringing education.Vodou branches parts Western Africa. arrived Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) slaves evolved Vodou, product resolute human found hope spirituality hellish realities slavery. combination array myths traditions Caribbean European colonization, 800,000 Africans various cultural, religious, linguistic backgrounds removed native land, shipped forced labor plantations.38 slave under control regarded harshest Americas, levels both mortality violence.”39Spirituality source coping mechanism oppressed peoples. As Haitian-born anthropologist Leslie Desmangles Faces Gods, secretly interacted each other, grouping together language call gods comfort strength. They organized themselves, knowledge diverse traditions, created religion, still at core today.40In Le haïtien: reflet d'une société bloquée, Fridolin Saint-Louis deepens argument emerged enslaved populations’ survive conditions argues incorporate daily how identities. expression identity quickly transformed powerful tool hands practicing “s'affirma aussi comme l'expression culturelle la plus profonde résistances” [also asserted itself deepest resistance].41 way conserve express colonial world.42As R. James demonstrates Jacobins, indeed “medium conspiracy” against slavery form resistance oppression.43 Runaway maroons hid mountains own communities. priests (ougan) priestesses (mambo), united followers fight colonizers. During rituals, maroon ougans manbos lwa (Vodou gods) protection strength defeat colonists. maroons’ revenge mentally spiritually prepared attack oppressors.44 drums accompanied rituals symbol destruction colonists hear echo raid.The ougan Dutty Boukman led communities runaway freedom. August 22, 1791, directed ceremony Bois Caïman “he stimulated prayer spoken creole,” today listeners suffering willing “revenge wrongs.”45 considered important event outbreak Revolution ultimately defeated beheaded rebellion tyrannical authorities.Haitian continued evolve incorporating elements faiths traditions. fusing different syncretism. conflicts time. saying goes, “70 Catholic, 30 Protestant, 100 Vodou.”46 Vodouisants non-Vodouisants alike, “feel participate” claim “their allegiance” mainstream strong desires serve act culture. Joining enables worship Christian serving lwa. helps create additional expand people's traditions.Desmangles nature syncretism symbiotic Christianity. juxtaposition beliefs space time “constitute whole Vodou.”47 Therefore, practices, beliefs, only. flexibility eases Mormonism.The persecutions cannot compared violence reinforced communal resist oppression commonalities share. regularly preached church curriculum seminaries. starts Jr. founding Church.48 1820, Palmyra, New York, experienced “great uneasiness” God's true church.49 entered grove trees pray hopes receiving answer should join. His came vision, commonly Vision. stroll woods marked beginning troubles. appeared, ordered restore “true” prophet.50 news experience generated animosity soon target violence. Smith: Rough Stone Rolling, historian Richard Bushman occasion mob “meant castrate” doctor's “heart failed refused operate.”51 subject brutality. publicly mocked, tarred feathered, received death threats. increased grew.52The quintessential persecution Missouri's government 1830s. planned Jerusalem, Zion, soil, “dedicate time, talents, establishment up kingdom.”53 chose Missouri place gathering. flooded state, violence.54 back, non-Mormon Missourians. October 27, 1838, governor Lilburn Boggs declared “Mormons treated enemies, exterminated driven necessary.”55 With order, increased.56 31, surrendered authorities, hoping arrest end prevent ultimate destruction.57 Soon taken custody, fled across Mississippi River refuge Illinois.Once escaped moved settle Nauvoo, Illinois. grow, followed. Much Illinois, due rumors sex life. July 1843, orders plural marriage, polygamy. A House Full Females: Plural Marriage Women's Rights Early 1835–1870, Laurel Thatcher Ulrich three polygamy, sealed dozen women” swore secrecy union protect harmful reactions practice.58 Scandals relating sexual caused deep unrest community, eventually lead assassination.59 Disgruntled fuming issue marriage newspaper, Nauvoo Expositor, uncovered polygamy Nauvoo.60 paper printed, assisted newspaper's press, resulted “inciting riots.”61 twenty-four hours detention, murdered vigilantes broke Carthage Jail.62After turned guidance survival, Saint-Domingue. tenacity helped move forward rebuild Zion West, away government. Marilène Phipps, recognizes past share her memoir “it just bear hard legacy” troubling bloodshed.”63The images persecuted verge extermination memory reenact nineteenth-century westward exodus every year. pioneer trek become “cultural ritual” goal give participants small taste pioneers push handcart Utah.”64 Participants pioneers, bring few toiletries, camp, eat outside. Remembering early Saints’ sacrifices memory. encourage understand gave predecessors necessary governmental community.These show that, consider people. harassed mobs possessions stolen destroyed, murdered. rebel government, identity. differences, ties practices.The confirmation ritual, occurs shortly Saint baptism, symbolizes reception Holy Ghost, Spirit, body.65 consists blessing member places newly baptized person “confirms” individual Saints. holder specific words: “receive Ghost,” ordering allow Spirit body.66 apostle David A. Bednar moment receives “companionship Spirit.”67 Through confirmation, becomes host Spirit.For Mormons, Ghost honor gift because, Bednar, “communication our carries far certainty communication we natural senses.”68 use expressions “guided,” “pushed,” “moved” refer encounters being. ways, parallel scholarly definition possession. Religious scholar Pieter F. Craffert defines possession central feature emergence growth traditions,” characterized sudden change person's behavior controlled external power.69 twenty-first-century almost exclusively “possession” context devil, they, body.In accounts casting malevolent spirits Newel Knight's story. wife fetched rescue husband. home, Newel's “distorted twisted” “tossed fearfully.” caught Knight hand cast devil priesthood.70 miracle Church” deliver mortals possession.Mormons, using “possession.” studies Stephen Taysom doctrine, certain terms fraught “closely Roman Catholic exorcism want disassociate themselves.71 refrains referring centrality baptism. shaped negatively view possession.Vodouisants, possession” likewise experiences. Literary Alessandra Benedicty-Kokken noted Kreyòl there translatable word possession; “monte chwal” (ridden horse) beings.72 said “ride” participants.